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1145 resume and accounting 1649
He was Count of Boulogne from until and Duke of Normandy from until His reign was marked by the Anarchy , a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda , whose son, Henry II , succeeded Stephen as the first of the Angevin kings of England. Stephen was born in the County of Blois in central France ; his father, Count Stephen-Henry , died while Stephen was still young, and he was brought up by his mother, Adela , daughter of William the Conqueror. Placed into the court of his uncle, Henry I of England , Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands.
He married Matilda of Boulogne , inheriting additional estates in Kent and Boulogne that made the couple one of the wealthiest in England. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I's son, William Adelin , in the sinking of the White Ship in ; William's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge.
When Henry died in , Stephen quickly crossed the English Channel and with the help of his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester and Abbot of Glastonbury , took the throne, arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I's daughter, the Empress Matilda. The early years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a series of attacks on his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland , Welsh rebels, and the Empress Matilda's husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou.
In , the Empress's half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his close advisor, Waleran de Beaumont , Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule, including arresting a powerful family of bishops.
When the Empress and Robert invaded in , Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, and it took hold in the south-west of England. Captured at the battle of Lincoln in , he was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy.
He was freed only after his wife and William of Ypres , one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the Rout of Winchester , but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage. Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne. The King tried to convince the Church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim; Pope Eugene III refused, and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy.
In the Empress's son, Henry FitzEmpress , invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford , but neither side's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle. Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester , in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over William , Stephen's second son.
Stephen died the following year. Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which his personality, external events, or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war.
Stephen was born in Blois , France, in either or France in the 12th century was a loose collection of counties and smaller polities, under the minimal control of the King of France. William's children were still fighting over the collective Anglo-Norman inheritance. Stephen had at least four brothers and one sister, along with two probable half-sisters. Stephen's early life was heavily influenced by his relationship with his uncle Henry I.
Henry seized power in England following the death of his elder brother William Rufus. In he invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy , controlled by his eldest brother, Robert Curthose , defeating Robert's army at the battle of Tinchebray.
Stephen was probably with Henry during the military campaign of , when he was knighted by the King. He was present at court during the King's visit to the Abbey of Saint-Evroul in Henry became a powerful patron of Stephen, and probably chose to support him because Stephen was part of his extended family and a regional ally, yet not sufficiently wealthy or powerful in his own right to represent a threat to either the King or his heir, William Adelin. Finally, the King arranged for Stephen to marry Matilda in , the daughter and only heiress of the Count of Boulogne , who owned both the important continental port of Boulogne and vast estates in the north-west and south-east of England.
In , the English political landscape changed dramatically. Three hundred passengers embarked on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy to England, including the heir to the throne, William Adelin, and many other senior nobles. With Adelin dead, the inheritance to the English throne was thrown into doubt. Rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, male primogeniture , in which the eldest son would inherit a title, was becoming more popular.
In other parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided up, with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands—usually considered to be the most valuable—and younger sons being given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or estates.
There had been no peaceful, uncontested successions. With William Adelin dead, Henry had only one other legitimate child, Matilda , but as a woman she was at a substantial political disadvantage. Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and Normandy, demanding that his court take oaths first in , and then again in and , to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor and recognise her descendants as the rightful rulers after her.
Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England, and proposed to Henry in that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a much more powerful position after Henry's death.
Stephen was a well established figure in Anglo-Norman society by He was extremely wealthy, well-mannered and liked by his peers; he was also considered a man capable of firm action.
Rumours about his father's cowardice during the First Crusade, however, continued to circulate, and a desire to avoid the same reputation may have influenced some of Stephen's rasher military actions.
Stephen's younger brother, Henry of Blois , had also risen to power under Henry I. From the s onwards, however, successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the church being "governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre" and established "its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction, separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler", in the words of historian Richard Huscroft. When news began to spread of Henry I's death, many of the potential claimants to the throne were not well placed to respond.
Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, rather awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester. Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived.
The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the King, and they proclaimed Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return. Furthermore, the late King had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the kingdom, and in light of the chaos that might now ensue, Stephen would be justified in ignoring it. Meanwhile, the Norman nobility gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring Theobald king, probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England.
Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was to occur the next day. Stephen's new Anglo-Norman kingdom had been shaped by the Norman conquest of England in , followed by the Norman expansion into south Wales over the coming years. Certainly lands in Normandy, passed by hereditary right, were usually considered more important to major barons than those in England, where their possession was less certain.
Henry had increased the authority and capabilities of the central royal administration, often bringing in " new men " to fulfil key positions rather than using the established nobility. Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation. Returning south, Stephen held his first royal court at Easter Troubles continued across Stephen's kingdom.
After the Welsh victory at the battle of Llwchwr in January and the successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in April, south Wales rose in rebellion, starting in east Glamorgan and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during Neither mission was particularly successful, and by the end of the King appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion. Historian David Crouch suggests that Stephen effectively "bowed out of Wales" around this time to concentrate on his other problems.
The security of Normandy was also a concern. Geoffrey of Anjou invaded in early and, after a temporary truce, invaded later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory. In the years following his succession, Stephen's relationship with the church became gradually more complex. The royal charter of had promised to review the ownership of all the lands that had been taken by the crown from the church since , but these estates were now typically owned by nobles.
Stephen responded by seizing his personal wealth, which caused some discontent amongst the senior clergy. The papacy named Henry papal legate , possibly as consolation for not receiving Canterbury. Stephen's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways. He stabilised the northern border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was at peace with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his barons.
The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry, Stephen had abandoned Wales, the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy, and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed. Stephen was attacked on several fronts during First, Robert, Earl of Gloucester , rebelled against the King, starting the descent into civil war in England. He was known for his qualities as a statesman, his military experience, and leadership ability.
David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into Yorkshire. Anglo-Norman warfare during the reign of Stephen was characterised by attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory and ultimately win a slow, strategic victory.
These armies, however, were ill-suited to besieging castles, whether the older motte-and-bailey designs or the newer, stone-built keeps. Existing siege engines were significantly less powerful than the later trebuchet designs, giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers. As a result, slow sieges to starve defenders out, or mining operations to undermine walls, tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults. Stephen's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat, his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly over relatively long distances.
His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of Dover , under Robert's control. Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank".
Stephen prepared for the Angevin invasion by creating a number of additional earldoms. Stephen created many more, filling them with men he considered to be loyal, capable military commanders, and in the more vulnerable parts of the country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers. Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor, Waleran de Beaumont , the twin brother of Robert of Leicester.
The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received the majority of these new earldoms. Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule. Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran, who disliked their control of the royal administration.
In June , Stephen held his court in Oxford, where a fight between Alan of Brittany and Roger's men broke out, an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen. This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops, with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in Devizes Castle ; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute Roger le Poer. Stephen's brother, Henry of Blois, was alarmed by this, both as a matter of principle, since Stephen had previously agreed in to respect the freedoms of the church, and more pragmatically because he himself had recently built six castles and had no desire to be treated in the same way.
Henry asserted the Church's right to investigate and judge all charges against members of the clergy. The King was supported by Hugh of Amiens , Archbishop of Rouen , who challenged the bishops to show how canon law entitled them to build or hold castles.
Aubrey threatened that Stephen would complain to the pope that he was being harassed by the English church, and the council let the matter rest following an unsuccessful appeal to Rome. The Angevin invasion finally arrived in Baldwin de Redvers crossed over from Normandy to Wareham in August in an initial attempt to capture a port to receive the Empress Matilda's invading army, but Stephen's forces forced him to retreat into the south-west. Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother, Henry; the full details of the truce are not known, but the results were that Stephen first released Matilda from the siege and then allowed her and her household of knights to be escorted to the south-west, where they were reunited with Robert of Gloucester.
Contemporary chroniclers suggested that Henry argued that it would be in Stephen's own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert, and Stephen may have seen Robert, not the Empress, as his main opponent at this point in the conflict.
Having released the Empress, Stephen focused on pacifying the south-west of England.
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He was Count of Boulogne from until and Duke of Normandy from until
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